In the dystopian novel, The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood, portrays a world controlled by the newly defined social conventions and practices of the “Republic of Gilead.” Atwood created a complex character, a tragic hero, who struggles internally to make sense of the alienation and chaos of the world in which she finds herself. Atwood stated that she did not “require a more heroic protagonist, for I think The Handmaid’s Tale offers something more important than a story of swashbuckling heroism by demonstrating that there is no safety and that the greatest danger is in ignoring that there is” (Green 15). Atwood creates a character who moves through life blithely with little awareness of impending danger, content to “lie low” and “live in the margins,” even when her very survival is threatened. The Handmaid’s Tale serves as a warning to readers who would fail to actively safeguard their freedoms.
One element that is often overlooked in the study of the oppressive governance in the fictional Gilead is the protagonist’s complicity in her subjugation. In “Discipline and Punish,” philosopher and critic Michel Foucault argued that “he who is subjected to a field of visibility, and who knows it assumes responsibility for the constraint of power…he becomes the principle of his own subjugation” (Foucault 555-556) He believed that the imprisoned or oppressed, like Offred, assume a mentality of resignation and constant awareness of their condition which causes them to accept and internalize their limited power and position – in effect allowing themselves to be oppressed.
Atwood employs imagery of childishness throughout the text to demonstrate the lack of maturity, responsibility and independence necessary to counter the newly established laws and societal conventions. Throughout the novel, Offred the handmaid is regularly treated like a child by those who are superior to her. Offred assumes the characteristics of a child, in both thought and action, framing her ideals or observations in childlike terms. It is Offred’s willing assumption of this persona which eases the subordination, of her, by others in the power structure. Her adoption of this childlike mindset relaxes her moral standards, allowing her the ability to rationalize. She cloaks behaviors that she recognizes as wrong or forbidden by setting them in terms of naughty or immature behavior. She also employs this sense of powerlessness as a ready excuse, to remove herself from any culpability for these unlawful and immoral actions.
The narrator acknowledges her transition from free American woman to limited child figure in Gilead with the observation that “I am like a child here, there are some things I must not be told” (Atwood 53). Offred, though prized for her womanly reproductive ability, is treated in a diminished manner befitting a child by characters at all levels of the power spectrum. The “Aunt” characters, from which Offred received most of her early indoctrination of her new purpose, demean their charges by calling them “girls” (instead of “ladies” as is the practice when the Wives are present). Even Rita, who is essentially a lowly domestic servant is able to debase Offred, who remarks that it is “surprising how much like a small, begging child she makes me feel…how importune and whiny” (207). The Commander indulges her by playing childish games with her such as hiding items behind his back for her to guess at or letting her win at the games they play together.
It is at the earliest point in the chronology of the story that the pattern of acceptance of subjugation is first revealed. As drastic changes begin to occur in the Untied States which leave her suddenly without a job or the ability to access her won bank account, she simply resigns herself to the new reality. She describes how many women have begun protesting the changes in marches and demonstrations, but content to “lie low”she admits, “Ididn’t go on any of the marches. Luke said it would be futile” instead, she continues, “I started doing more housework, more baking” (180). She describes the physical and emotional depression she experienced, but did nothing to advocate herself. The unnamed narrator realizes the impact of her diminishing power and childlike reliance on others to care for her, when her husband, Luke, promises to “take care” of her. Her initial reaction, disclosed through internal dialogue, is “already he’s starting to patronize me” (179). Almost immediately she acquiesces to him by agreeing that she knows he will care for her, and recognizing that she is at his mercy.
The activities of Offred’s daily life resemble her remembrances of childhood, offering a sense of familiarity and appealing to a sense of nostalgia for the experiences which range from the mundane to the impactful. The Handmaid notes the details of her everyday life, mimicking a youngsters, including daily naps and describing her meals, “a cheese sandwich, a glass of milk…a schoolchild’s lunch” (282). More profound events of her daily life such as her exposure to bible teachings and political programming are echoed by earlier events of her youth. The films that the Aunts present to demonstrate the radical feminist teachings from which the “girls” are being protected depict acitivist women, including her own activist mother. These screenings echo the ones which her mother watched with her, “when she was seven or eight, too young to understand it” (144). The Biblical teachings which are mandated by the government in the Republic of Gilead are also reminiscent of television programs, viewed around the same age, when she would watch “the Growing Souls Gospel Hour, where they would tell Bible stories for children and sing hymns,” adding the irony that “one of the women was called Serena Joy” (16), the wife of her latest commander. The Handmaid’s inability to distinguish between the modes of exposure to ideological dogma is profound. Offred compares, without distinction, the forced programming sessions she viewed as a handmaid with her childhood memories of documentary and television features that was optional and uncensored.
Offred’s diminishment to a childlike figure is not merely foisted upon her by the characters and circumstances of the novel, it is an image she adopts in terms of self identity, behavior and the way she perceives the world around her. In general terms, she speaks of how women’s bodies are like “unruly children.” In more personal terms, she describes herself as a “child who is being allowed up late with the grown-ups” (82). This distinction between herself and other members of the household is significant, because she views herself as inferior to each person, regardless of their level of power, and “grown up” when contrasted with herself.
She regularly exhibits child like characteristics and beliefs. In several scenes in the novel she assumes the posture associated with a good and obedient child, by sitting with her hands folded in front of her. She places herself into accepted postures – “without being told”. Her movements are youthful, and even the act of walking down a concrete sidewalk offers a regression to childish mannerisms and superstitions as “like a child, I avoid stepping on the cracks” (24). This childish mindset, which allows her to cling to superstition, also allows her to maintain an innocent or naïve way of viewing the horrific world around her. Both buildings and people are framed in terms of fairy tale language and imagery. She envisions herself and fellow handmaids as fairytale figures, moving through a world “as if enchanted. A fairy tale I would like to believe” (213). She offers a portrayal of her reality in this idealized literary tradition, in an attempt to ground herself with a frame of reference, but also offering herself hope for a “happy ending.”
Offred’s perception of the atrocities occurring around her, especially the men’s executions, is phrased in metaphor and simile consistent with juvenile experience. Confronted with the hooded bodies of three dead men the narrator describes them as faceless dolls, scarecrows, and melting snowmen. The appearance of blood on one of the cloth hoods is likened to “a mouth, a small red one, like the mouths painted with the thick brushes of kindergarten children” (32). Though she herself has just likened this seeping of blood on to the white hood of the executed as a mouth, she emphasizes that it is a “child’s idea of a smile” (32). The juxtaposition of childish perceptions with awareness of the reality of the situation indicate an intentional desire to escape from reality and her belief that she is unable to control any of the horrors she encounters.
In reaction to the stifling authoritarian regime she is forced to live under, Offred begins to test boundaries, as children often do. She describes a brief encounter with a Guardian in which she allows him to see her face and is tempted to touch his skin. She rationalizes the behavior as “a small defiance of the rule, so small as to be undetectable, but such moments are the rewards I hold out for myself, like the candy I hoarded, as a child, at the back of the drawer” (21). She couches these and other infractions in terms of youthful behavior – serving to diminish the serious of the infraction and allowing her to justify her actions. Her rebelliousness increases gradually from minor offenses like stealing sugar packets and butter, increasingly boldness allows her to cheating with the commander in word games and sharing non-sanctioned verbal exchanges with her fellow handmaids, and finally culminating in grievous offenses of maintaining ongoing relationships with both the Commander and Nick.
She attempts through her recounting of events to make herself appear sympathetic and justified, reminding the reader frequently of her inability to control the direction and outcome of her life. However, she acknowledges awareness of violating the rules and boundaries of her own personal standards, and even those of the society in which she was raised. When considering an object to steal from the household of the commander, she recognizes the futility of the object she covets, noting, I would like to steal something from this room…It would make me feel that I have power” (80-81). The rules she breaks in no way advance her ultimate freedom or protect others vulnerable to the oppressive system.
Her relationship with the commander is also morally problematic for her – she enjoys the forbidden rendezvous and distraction offered by the illicit activity despite the danger it represents to her. She realizes that this relationship has negative and hurtful consequences for the wife, Serena Joy, “I felt guilty about her. I felt I was an intruder, in a territory that ought have been hers” (161). She recalls discussions that she had with her friend, whose opinion she highly valued, and who showed disdain for the action of “poaching” another woman’s man. Yet Offred acknowledges her activity not as powerless sex slave, but empowered mistress. She realizes even from the audience perspective her actions are fundamentally wrong – apologizing, “I wish this story were different, I wish it showed me in a better light” (267). She acknowledges the power and privilege that her forbidden relationship with the Commander offers her. This relationship offers her a chance at redemption for her moral character, as it allows her the opportunity to act an informant for the resistance movement. But she dismisses this idea – and greedily focuses on her own selfish motives.
Many characters in the novel, oppressed similarly to Offred, affect their situations by actively choosing to counter the system which subjugates them. Her mother served as an emblem of political and social activism, whose efforts brought about real change (although not necessarily the kind she had intended.) Moira, her friend both during freedom and imprisonment, exemplifies constant challenge to authority and determination to control her destiny, ultimately leading to her escape. Offred recognizes the difference between women like Moira and herself, “I don’t want her to be like me. Give in, go along, save her skin…I want gallantry from her, swashbuckling, heroism, single-handed combat” (249).But Offred recognizes that Moira and her bravery are exceptional and rare. Other handmaid characters, more relatable to Offred, also find avenues for determining their own destiny, whether through aiding the resistance movement or committing suicide.. Regardless of the seemingly unalterable situations which they find themselves in, these other characters further act to witness against Offred’s assertion that she is unable to impact her life.
The recognition that she could have been taking action throughout the story to shape her own outcome is a theme repeated many times in the novel, yet in the end she still fails to act independently. In the last chapter of the novel she sits awaiting the arrival of the Guardians who are coming to remove her to an unknown fate, but instead using any number of exit strategies she has considered, she reverts to daydreaming as an escape from the uncertain reality which awaits her. The childlike Offred takes no action to protect or defend herself, but rather, once again allows, herself to be placed at the mercy of others (the Guardians).
The Handmaid’s Tale, though an imagined reality, challenges readers to consider the progression or logical outcome of behaviors present in today’s society. Atwood’s characterization of Offred as a citizen who is disengaged and non-reactive to social and political changes in her world serve as a warning for modern day readers to “grow up” and take responsibility, through remaining informed, involved and taking each opportunity to shape their destiny, else they could be dismissed like an unruly child.
Works Cited
Atwood, Margaret. The Handmaid’s Tale. New York: Random, 1986.
Foucault, Michel. “Discipline and Punish.” Literary Theory: An Anthology. Eds. Julie Rivkin and Michael Rivkin. Malden: Blackwell, 2004. 549-565
Greene, Gayle. “Choice of Evils.” The Women’s Review of Books. July, 1986: 14-15. JSTOR. MLA International Bibliography. Oviatt Library. 24, March 2009 http://www.jstor.org/stable/4019952.
Sunday, December 20, 2009
Main CHaracter in the Margins: Homosexual Voice in The Big Money by John Dos Passos
In examining the U.S.A. Trilogy by John Dos Passos, critic George Becker defines two themes which are found throughout the series – the obvious “soulless drive for wealth,” and the more subtle “repression of dissent.” The latter may be exemplified by the political and social demonstration of disparate ideological views (socialism/capitalism, material/idealism, and collective/individual, etc.), as well as the challenge of societal conventions found throughout the novel. Becker argues that the separation from the conventional or accepted traditions subject characters who express themselves in non traditional ways or express radical views as targets of ostracism or marginalization.
Most critics of the novel The Big Money, including Becker, tend to read the character Tony Garrido as an extension of Margo Dowling or a subplot to her overall narrative. I would argue that Dos Passos is using the character of Tony, as a “closeted” main character to explore the dissent of the homosexual from social conventions, and its repression which is demonstrated internally and externally[RSB1] . Garrido’s embodiment of the theme of “repression of dissent” may in actuality define him as a significant character (perhaps more so than Margo). Both in the context of the story and in the technical method by which this character has been presented by Dos Passos, Tony’s sexuality relegates him to a marginalized status which effectively silences his voice. Tony is never able to directly broach the struggle his sexual identity causes him and the pain and difficulties he faces must be related only through the voice of others. The exploration of Tony Garrido’s experience is therefore hidden or “closeted” within the context of Margo’s narrative and the Valentino biography.
In Margo’s second narrative section in the novel, when Margo and Tony happen upon each other, they are both struggling to form their identity in terms of their sexuality. The young couple, she is sixteen years old and he is twenty-one, find solidarity and a level of newly experienced comfort in someone with whom they can share their frustrations and their dreams. Margo complains to Tony, describing the unease she feels because of her burgeoning sexuality. She recounts to him the harassing attention of the men who are interested in her - though she withholds news from him about being raped by her stepfather Frank. Tony also fails to disclose the secret of his homosexuality. Though unvoiced to Margo, Tony displays signs of distress regarding the sexual component of their relationship, as well as her conclusion that a marriage between them would provide the perfect escape (for her away from Frank and Agnes and the stifling boredom of the apartment and for him to the nostalgia of his childhood home of Cuba) which they both desire.
Tony clearly struggles internally during this period with the true nature of his homosexual desires and the societal pressures to seek out a conventional relationship. Tony responds timidly to Margo’s aggressive sexual advances, allowing her to take on the role of instigator. Despite her provocative actions which grow increasingly intimate by her design, Margo refuses to allow consummation by completing the sexual act, insisting on first being married and escaped from their present condition. Tony’s emotional outburst of tears and feigned indignation to Margo’s sexual advances would indicate extreme sexual frustration or a frightened lack of experience, they are in fact the first real intimations of Tony’s homosexuality, and the dueling urges which conflict him. Later references will indicate to the reader (and eventually to Margo,) Tony’s true sexual identity, but during their courtship he seems willing to participate by marrying Margo and attempting a more traditional relationship. Margo is the architect of the marriage plan, and though “he didn’t seem to like the idea very much” (146) he did nothing to dissuade his future wife.
Theorist Judith Butler argued that “Gender …is a construction that regularly conceals its genesis. The tacit agreement to perform, produce and sustain discrete and polar genders as cultural fictions is obscured by the credibility of its own production “ (903). During their engagement, Tony “performed” the role that was expected of him, in both appearance and deed. Tony and Margo were striking together, causing strangers on the street to remark, “my, what a handsome young couple” (146). Tony provided the anticipated protest when Margo refused to allow him to have intercourse with her, referencing male dominated cultural tradition, or machismo, identified with Cuban men. He also played stereotypical male roles by earning the money needed to carry out their plans and by being the decisive voice in the timing and execution of their wedding arrangements. Tony’s unease becomes evident as he plunged into a “compulsory heterosexual” relationship, which although he participated in and enacted, is not credibly based. The narrative catalogues Tony’s increasing discomfort and fear as they obtain a marriage license, register at the hotel as a married couple and secured the room , and their honeymoon suite – they use it for practical purposes of freshening up, and not for relieving the unrealized sexual tension.
Immediately upon marrying, Tony is affected by the external consequences of the denial of his nature. The unnatural carriage and composure of the couple belie the true nature of their relationship- causing the hotel clerk to doubt their marriage claim and demanding proof. When the newlyweds begin to drink champagne shortly after their wedding, effectively loosening his inhibitions, Tony begins to gradually insinuate his homosexuality, revealing that “many rich men like me very much” (148). His marriage and return to Havana are so unsettling to Tony that he becomes physically ill on the journey and Margo must assume the role of caretaker and protector which will continue through the course of their relationship. Though Tony experiences a sexual relationship with Margo, as is evidenced by her subsequent pregnancy, it becomes increasingly clear that he is dedicated to pursuing (or being pursued) by male companions. The nature of Garrido’s relationships with men like “el Senor Manfredo” are cloaked, falsifying their true intent. Tony presents these men as friends who are interested in helping him further his career. Tony demonstrates his confusion and dual allegiance to both his constructed heterosexual image and his homosexual yearnings by visiting the bedside of his pregnant wife while accompanied by his male “benefactor.” Margo’s reaction to the events unfolding around her are filled with denial, her arrival in Havana marks her realization that she will be unable to fulfill her dreams of happiness with Tony..” The nature of their incompatibility is unclear to Margo, even as Tony gradually reveals more of his authentic self to her. It is only when she hears the truth from her husband about his “secret disease” that she fully comprehends the situation.
Tony’s external characteristics and actions which distinguish him as homosexual develop throughout the course of the novel. Initially Tony is described in terms of his feminine features and mannerism – Margo initially marvels at his “long eyelashes brushing his pink cheek” (148) and his “polite bashful manners.” Despite his delicate description, there is no clear indication that he is other than a typical heterosexual male. This is further reinforced by the reaction of Frank when he learns that Margo and Tony are dating and he disparages Tony by identifying him as a “greaser” rather than using a sexual epithet. When Margo encounters Tony in Florida as she is preparing to cruise with her new boyfriend Tad, a dramatic change has come over Tony by extension Margo’s perception of him. Upon recognizing his “mincing” walk approaching, “the first thing that Margo thought was how on earth could she have ever liked that fagot” (216). Tony also develops a drug problem – which a modern reader may interpret as further evidence of the self destructiveness and inner turmoil caused by Tony’s conflicted sexuality. However in exploring “The Gendering of Addiction in the Twentieth Century,” author Mara Keire explains, “Cocaine was another signifier that some fairies adopted to distinguish themselves from conventional society. These fairies chose cocaine because, like their contemporaries, they associated drug use with femininity…. It was the association of drugs with fairies that informed John Dos Passos’s characterized Tony Garrido it was his addiction as much as his "mincing walk" that confirmed his homosexuality to his wife Margo Dowling. (Keire 3) Tony’s secret which he was initially reluctant to confide, becomes a very public presentation of self.
Dos Passos creates the character of Tony as the ultimate symbol of the outsider. Tony is a drug addict, out of work, effeminate foreigner. His delicate appearance, body language and mannerisms offer rebellious challenge to the image of the generally strong and powerful male ideal common in American in the post World War I era. Becker’s criticism of The Big Money relates several behavior patterns among the main characters, most significantly for this thesis, is that which the critic identifies as being “so prominent as to constitute a major theme, …an eradicable inhumanity, an intolerance toward all people and ideas in anyway offbeat” (Becker 9). The many distinctions which make Tony an outsider, also make him the object of scorn and contempt from other characters featured in the novel. He is railed against as being a “greaser,” “spick,” “fagot” and a “rat.” Becker writes of Dos Passos’s characters, that “this automatic consigning of aliens and oddballs to coventry leads to exploitation and violence” (Becker 9). Becker points to Margo’s harsh treatment of Tony throughout the novel, and while I would agree that she is lashing out at him for his homosexuality, I would suggest that she is demonstrating the confusion and internal struggle caused by the confusion which their complex relationship causes her – she loves him – even the characteristics which signify his homosexuality, and yet it simultaneously repulses her. Margo does regularly exploit Tony, treating him as a commodity that can be used when it benefits her, and dismissed when it does not. Tony is also the victim of violence or threatened violence, several times in the novel, In one incident he arrives on Margo’s doorstep bloody and disheveled explaining “A gang beat me up” (269). In another incident he has been beaten by his male companion, Max, who has threatened to “break every bone in his body” unless he is able to extort money from Margo. Finally, perhaps predictably, Tony is killed, his skull is fractured by a blunt object during a wild party rife with alcohol and narcotics, attended (according to newspaper accounts) only by men.
Dos Passos’s use of the Newsreel and (newspaper articles like the one recounting Tony’s death), and the biography sections may be read as a subjective voice guiding the reader’s attention to significant issues. The choice of biography subjects within The Big Money is often debated, but many critics have chosen to explore the importance of his choice of framing Margo Dowling’s narrative with celebrities Isadora Duncan and Rudolph Valentino. Rudolph Valentino’s biography in The Big Money is often described as Dos Passos’s critique of Hollywood manipulation and artifice, idol worshipping fans and the naiveté of the celebrity (Eduards 6-9). The Duncan biography is regularly distinguished by critics as the only use of a female in any of the 27 biographies presented in the U.S.A. Trilogy (Casey 7-9).I believe that the incorporation of the Valentino biography is as equally distinctive as the Duncan text, because the Valentino text features the only presumed homosexual in the biographical series, but also because it underscores the importance of the only defined homosexual figure in the novel. The similarities between created celebrity which Dowling and Valentino experience is certainly an issue which Dos Passos wished to explore, but I believe that framing Margo and Tony’s story with a character so remarkably similar to Tony Garrido points clearly to Dos Passos choice to highlight the challenges of gender identity and it’s implications.
Tony Garrido self identifies with Valentino, insisting upon his chance for success in Hollywood, that “if Valentino can do it, it will be easy for me” (314). The similarities between the Garrido and Valentino are notable. Both are foreigners who hope to find fame, and start out dancing in cabarets. Tony and Valentino were both “stranded on the coast [and] headed for Hollywood, worked for a long time as an extra.” (150).But the similarities between these men go beyond superficial details. Holding up these figures for examination, Dos Passos allows for contemplation of binaries prompting the reader to consider how as a society and a culture we tend to privilege one and scorn the other. Some of the binaries explored by an examination of the Valentino/Garrido characters are straight/gay, public/private, artifice/authentic, foreigner/citizen all of which are based on perception. This idea may be illustrated by reading Valentino’s biography which emphasizes dreams – both in the the dreams he had for himself and for his future, but also of the creation of this man of questionable sexuality becoming the “gigolo of every woman’s dreams ” (Dos Passos 150). This passage can be seen to represent both Valentino’s idealism versus the realism of his early struggles, but it also suggests the binary of artifice versus authenticism.
The most provocative elements of the Valentino biography for this examination are the veiled references to homosexuality and descriptions of the relationship to his wife, which can be compared to Tony’s relationship with Margo. Details of his divorce according to the biography entitled “Adagio Dancer” indicate that he and his first wife never slept together, implying a marriage of convenience which would allow him to assume the constructed image of a married man. This deceit allowed Valentino to fulfill the lustful fantasies of his fans, while providing a cover of privacy allowing him to follow other pursuits. Though Margo and Tony are never revealed to have been intimate after their time together in Cuba, they continue their legal marriage and remain a constant in each other’s lives. Another significant detail which emerged from this section is that Rudolph Valentino wore a slave bracelet given to him by his wife. It is an object that implies a delineation of power and control in the relationship. Valentino’s wearing of the bracelet suggests subservience to her despite his expected masculine domination. Though Margo does not offer Tony a slave bracelet, she similarly marks his subservience with a concrete object, “she made him wear an old chauffeur’s uniform when he drove her to the lot. She knew that if he wore that he wouldn’t go anywhere after he’d left her except right home and change” (Dos Passos 316). The uniform served not only as a physical marker of Tony’s inferior role, but it allowed Margo to exert her dominance by controlling his behavior.
Valentino’s biography also describes his collapse, emergency surgery and death from infection which is ambiguous in nature. Readers of Dos Passos’s era would have been familiar with the rumors which surrounded his death and which ranged from the innocuous suggestion that he had died from a burst appendix to the more scandalous accusations that he had been shot by a gay lover or that he had contracted syphilis and succumbed to an infection because of it. Tony’s venereal disease, which he spreads to Margo and their baby is featured as a prominent plot element. Similarly to the Valentino account, allusions are made to Tony’s “secret disease,” – it is only through knowledge of his activity and deduction by the symptoms whch confirms to the reader that Tony has contracted a venereal disease (and infected his wife). This rising action of discovery of Tony’s syphilitic condition and its resulting death of her infant daughter, prompts Margo to flee from Tony. Though she is aware of the disease and it’s potentially permanent complications, she refuses to seek treatment for some time – further demonstrating her denial of Tony’s behavior and how his behavior and its consequences becomes her “secret” as well.
Tony’s constant presence drives or alters the action in each of the Dowling sections, which further support the claim that Tony is truly a main character. The only section of the novel in which Tony is not represented is in the section describing Margo’s youth - although even in this introduction, an incident is described which indicates an attraction for and desire to protect effeminate men. She is awarded with a prize at a boardwalk game booth by a foreign man described in effeminate terms: “Margie thought he was lovely, his face was so smooth and he had such a funny little voice and his lips and eyelids were so clearly marked just like the dolls’ and he had long black eyelashes too.” Margo’s attraction to the game attendant is more profound and indicates her desires, “Margie used to think she’d like to have him to take to bed with her like a doll. She said that Agnes and Frank laughed and laughed at her so that she felt awful ashamed.” (133-134). Her youthful wishes to take this man as a plaything to her bed – though innocently voiced - certainly indicate a physical attraction to men whose signifiers would indicate a definite preference for effeminate men. Her desire to treat him like a doll and protect him also indicates a nurturing side – which is internally conflicted because of the shame related to this desire, and will form the basis of her relationship with her future husband. Though not present physically in this section, the issues which Tony represents and Margo’s response to them are markedly clear.
Dos Passos intentionally crafted this lonely girl whose upbringing is void of traditional or conventional gender roles – she grows up with an absentee father and a surrogate motherer figure with whom she cannot relate – to become an extension or anchor for Tony’s character. Margo’s upbringing is designed to make her sympathetic to Tony’s flawed judgment and inability to conform and which make it impossible for him provide her with stability and provide her with the idealized husband figure she desires. One cannot overlook the similarities between Tony and Margo’s father – both are men who desired to live a traditional life, but whose addictions and lifestyles made that impossible. Both men ultimately disappoint Margo repeatedly, but she continues to hold out hope for them. Tony’s unexpected arrivals and departures, as well as brief flashes of happiness and normalcy are reminiscent of the limited happy experiences she would have as a child when Fred would return home, brightening her world. In Margo Dowling II (192-201), though Tony has abandoned her in a foreign country while he is being pursued by his male “friends,” Margo lashes out and literally beats him into submission – after which they are being described as “happy and cozy for the first time since arriving in Cuba” (195). Later in the novel, Margo is confronted by her estranged husband who is ill and she makes the decision to nurse him back to health in her hotel room. His presence forced her to alter the room registration, “it made her awful to have to write it down in the book Mr. and Mrs. Antonio de Garrido. Once it was written it didn’t look so bad though” (218). Margo’s use of Tony’s last name when she registers at a modeling agency upon arriving in Hollywood and her incorporation of his family history and culture into her created image indicates an ultimate acceptance of Tony. Though she is still hurt and perplexed by his dalliances with other men, and horrified by his behavior which is marked by lying and stealing, Margo continues to stand by Tony.
The final section on Margo Dowling (303-339) ends with the revelation of Tony’s death described in a newspaper article which a relieved Agnes shows to shocked Margo. Upon learning of his death, Margo demonstrates the most emotional response she has had throughout the novel. “Margo felt the room swinging in great circles around her head. “Oh, my God “she said. Going upstairs she had to hold tight to the balustrade to keep from falling. She tore off her clothes and ran herself a hot bath and lay back in it with her eyes closed” (338). Immediately upon learning of Tony’s death, Margo embarks on a staged marriage trip with Sam Margolies and her transition to completely artificial construct is complete. Tony therefore may seem, troubled and a source of pain for Margo (who at times lashed out because of her internal desire to force him to conform), but was what defined her humanity.
Though Margo is presented as a main character, The Big Money presents her life story and rise to celebrity only in the context of Tony’s experience. It is significant that Dos Passos symbolically represented Tony in Margo’s earliest experiences, interwove him through her narratives and then related biographies framing her and that the sections narrating Margo’s experience come abruptly to an end upon the death of her husband.
Philosopher Michel Foucault recognized those who fell outside of the accepted norms of sexual and gender identity as “other.” Those who were deemed to engage in “unnatural” sex practices were identified by some as a separate “species.” (Foucault 896). Dos Passos recognized the social oppression faced by homosexuals in the early part of the twentieth century in America which made it impossible for them to proclaim their sexual identity without fear of vicious attack. The inability for the character of Tony to claim a voice and speak openly of the pain of the queer experience and the persecution inflicted upon him by an unsympathetic world is personalized for the audience, in a nuanced manner which would begin to prompt society to view those relegated to the status of “other” as humanized. Tony Garrido’s embodiment of the overarching theme of “repression of dissent,” which is so significant to Dos Passos marks him as a significant voice within this novel – though he seems to have no voice at all.
Works Cited
Becker, George J. “Visions…” John Dos Passos. New York: Frederick Ungar, 1974. Galenet. Literature Resource Center. Oviatt Library, Northridge CA. 29 April 2009..
Butler, Judith. “Performative Acts and Gender Constitution.” Literary Theory: An Anthology. Eds. Julie Rivkin and Michael Rivkin. Malden: Blackwell, 2004. 900-911.
Casey, Janet Galligani. "Historicizing the female in U.S.A.: Re-visions of Dos Passo's trilogy." Twentieth Century Literature 41.16 (Fall95 1995): 249. MAS Ultra - School Edition. EBSCO. Oviatt Library, Northridge, CA. 29 Apr 2009..
Dos Pasosos, John. The Big Money. Boston: Mariner Books. 1933.
Eduards, Justin J. “The Man with a Camera Eye: Cinematic Form and Hollywood Malediction in John Dos Passos's "The Big Money." Literature Film Quarterly. Vol 27. Iss 4. 1999. 245-255. Communication and Mass Media Database. EBSCO. Oviatt Library, Northridge, CA. 29 April 2009.
Foucault, Michel. “The History of Sexuality.” Literary Theory: An Anthology. Eds. Julie Rivkin and Michael Rivkin. Malden: Blackwell, 2004. 549-565
Keire, Mara. “Dope fiends and degenerates: the gendering of addiction in the early twentieth century.” Journal of Social History. Volume: 31. Issue: 4. 1998. Page Number: 809+. Questia. 27 Apr 2009. http://www.questia.com.
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[RSB1]Reword/change order.
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Most critics of the novel The Big Money, including Becker, tend to read the character Tony Garrido as an extension of Margo Dowling or a subplot to her overall narrative. I would argue that Dos Passos is using the character of Tony, as a “closeted” main character to explore the dissent of the homosexual from social conventions, and its repression which is demonstrated internally and externally[RSB1] . Garrido’s embodiment of the theme of “repression of dissent” may in actuality define him as a significant character (perhaps more so than Margo). Both in the context of the story and in the technical method by which this character has been presented by Dos Passos, Tony’s sexuality relegates him to a marginalized status which effectively silences his voice. Tony is never able to directly broach the struggle his sexual identity causes him and the pain and difficulties he faces must be related only through the voice of others. The exploration of Tony Garrido’s experience is therefore hidden or “closeted” within the context of Margo’s narrative and the Valentino biography.
In Margo’s second narrative section in the novel, when Margo and Tony happen upon each other, they are both struggling to form their identity in terms of their sexuality. The young couple, she is sixteen years old and he is twenty-one, find solidarity and a level of newly experienced comfort in someone with whom they can share their frustrations and their dreams. Margo complains to Tony, describing the unease she feels because of her burgeoning sexuality. She recounts to him the harassing attention of the men who are interested in her - though she withholds news from him about being raped by her stepfather Frank. Tony also fails to disclose the secret of his homosexuality. Though unvoiced to Margo, Tony displays signs of distress regarding the sexual component of their relationship, as well as her conclusion that a marriage between them would provide the perfect escape (for her away from Frank and Agnes and the stifling boredom of the apartment and for him to the nostalgia of his childhood home of Cuba) which they both desire.
Tony clearly struggles internally during this period with the true nature of his homosexual desires and the societal pressures to seek out a conventional relationship. Tony responds timidly to Margo’s aggressive sexual advances, allowing her to take on the role of instigator. Despite her provocative actions which grow increasingly intimate by her design, Margo refuses to allow consummation by completing the sexual act, insisting on first being married and escaped from their present condition. Tony’s emotional outburst of tears and feigned indignation to Margo’s sexual advances would indicate extreme sexual frustration or a frightened lack of experience, they are in fact the first real intimations of Tony’s homosexuality, and the dueling urges which conflict him. Later references will indicate to the reader (and eventually to Margo,) Tony’s true sexual identity, but during their courtship he seems willing to participate by marrying Margo and attempting a more traditional relationship. Margo is the architect of the marriage plan, and though “he didn’t seem to like the idea very much” (146) he did nothing to dissuade his future wife.
Theorist Judith Butler argued that “Gender …is a construction that regularly conceals its genesis. The tacit agreement to perform, produce and sustain discrete and polar genders as cultural fictions is obscured by the credibility of its own production “ (903). During their engagement, Tony “performed” the role that was expected of him, in both appearance and deed. Tony and Margo were striking together, causing strangers on the street to remark, “my, what a handsome young couple” (146). Tony provided the anticipated protest when Margo refused to allow him to have intercourse with her, referencing male dominated cultural tradition, or machismo, identified with Cuban men. He also played stereotypical male roles by earning the money needed to carry out their plans and by being the decisive voice in the timing and execution of their wedding arrangements. Tony’s unease becomes evident as he plunged into a “compulsory heterosexual” relationship, which although he participated in and enacted, is not credibly based. The narrative catalogues Tony’s increasing discomfort and fear as they obtain a marriage license, register at the hotel as a married couple and secured the room , and their honeymoon suite – they use it for practical purposes of freshening up, and not for relieving the unrealized sexual tension.
Immediately upon marrying, Tony is affected by the external consequences of the denial of his nature. The unnatural carriage and composure of the couple belie the true nature of their relationship- causing the hotel clerk to doubt their marriage claim and demanding proof. When the newlyweds begin to drink champagne shortly after their wedding, effectively loosening his inhibitions, Tony begins to gradually insinuate his homosexuality, revealing that “many rich men like me very much” (148). His marriage and return to Havana are so unsettling to Tony that he becomes physically ill on the journey and Margo must assume the role of caretaker and protector which will continue through the course of their relationship. Though Tony experiences a sexual relationship with Margo, as is evidenced by her subsequent pregnancy, it becomes increasingly clear that he is dedicated to pursuing (or being pursued) by male companions. The nature of Garrido’s relationships with men like “el Senor Manfredo” are cloaked, falsifying their true intent. Tony presents these men as friends who are interested in helping him further his career. Tony demonstrates his confusion and dual allegiance to both his constructed heterosexual image and his homosexual yearnings by visiting the bedside of his pregnant wife while accompanied by his male “benefactor.” Margo’s reaction to the events unfolding around her are filled with denial, her arrival in Havana marks her realization that she will be unable to fulfill her dreams of happiness with Tony..” The nature of their incompatibility is unclear to Margo, even as Tony gradually reveals more of his authentic self to her. It is only when she hears the truth from her husband about his “secret disease” that she fully comprehends the situation.
Tony’s external characteristics and actions which distinguish him as homosexual develop throughout the course of the novel. Initially Tony is described in terms of his feminine features and mannerism – Margo initially marvels at his “long eyelashes brushing his pink cheek” (148) and his “polite bashful manners.” Despite his delicate description, there is no clear indication that he is other than a typical heterosexual male. This is further reinforced by the reaction of Frank when he learns that Margo and Tony are dating and he disparages Tony by identifying him as a “greaser” rather than using a sexual epithet. When Margo encounters Tony in Florida as she is preparing to cruise with her new boyfriend Tad, a dramatic change has come over Tony by extension Margo’s perception of him. Upon recognizing his “mincing” walk approaching, “the first thing that Margo thought was how on earth could she have ever liked that fagot” (216). Tony also develops a drug problem – which a modern reader may interpret as further evidence of the self destructiveness and inner turmoil caused by Tony’s conflicted sexuality. However in exploring “The Gendering of Addiction in the Twentieth Century,” author Mara Keire explains, “Cocaine was another signifier that some fairies adopted to distinguish themselves from conventional society. These fairies chose cocaine because, like their contemporaries, they associated drug use with femininity…. It was the association of drugs with fairies that informed John Dos Passos’s characterized Tony Garrido it was his addiction as much as his "mincing walk" that confirmed his homosexuality to his wife Margo Dowling. (Keire 3) Tony’s secret which he was initially reluctant to confide, becomes a very public presentation of self.
Dos Passos creates the character of Tony as the ultimate symbol of the outsider. Tony is a drug addict, out of work, effeminate foreigner. His delicate appearance, body language and mannerisms offer rebellious challenge to the image of the generally strong and powerful male ideal common in American in the post World War I era. Becker’s criticism of The Big Money relates several behavior patterns among the main characters, most significantly for this thesis, is that which the critic identifies as being “so prominent as to constitute a major theme, …an eradicable inhumanity, an intolerance toward all people and ideas in anyway offbeat” (Becker 9). The many distinctions which make Tony an outsider, also make him the object of scorn and contempt from other characters featured in the novel. He is railed against as being a “greaser,” “spick,” “fagot” and a “rat.” Becker writes of Dos Passos’s characters, that “this automatic consigning of aliens and oddballs to coventry leads to exploitation and violence” (Becker 9). Becker points to Margo’s harsh treatment of Tony throughout the novel, and while I would agree that she is lashing out at him for his homosexuality, I would suggest that she is demonstrating the confusion and internal struggle caused by the confusion which their complex relationship causes her – she loves him – even the characteristics which signify his homosexuality, and yet it simultaneously repulses her. Margo does regularly exploit Tony, treating him as a commodity that can be used when it benefits her, and dismissed when it does not. Tony is also the victim of violence or threatened violence, several times in the novel, In one incident he arrives on Margo’s doorstep bloody and disheveled explaining “A gang beat me up” (269). In another incident he has been beaten by his male companion, Max, who has threatened to “break every bone in his body” unless he is able to extort money from Margo. Finally, perhaps predictably, Tony is killed, his skull is fractured by a blunt object during a wild party rife with alcohol and narcotics, attended (according to newspaper accounts) only by men.
Dos Passos’s use of the Newsreel and (newspaper articles like the one recounting Tony’s death), and the biography sections may be read as a subjective voice guiding the reader’s attention to significant issues. The choice of biography subjects within The Big Money is often debated, but many critics have chosen to explore the importance of his choice of framing Margo Dowling’s narrative with celebrities Isadora Duncan and Rudolph Valentino. Rudolph Valentino’s biography in The Big Money is often described as Dos Passos’s critique of Hollywood manipulation and artifice, idol worshipping fans and the naiveté of the celebrity (Eduards 6-9). The Duncan biography is regularly distinguished by critics as the only use of a female in any of the 27 biographies presented in the U.S.A. Trilogy (Casey 7-9).I believe that the incorporation of the Valentino biography is as equally distinctive as the Duncan text, because the Valentino text features the only presumed homosexual in the biographical series, but also because it underscores the importance of the only defined homosexual figure in the novel. The similarities between created celebrity which Dowling and Valentino experience is certainly an issue which Dos Passos wished to explore, but I believe that framing Margo and Tony’s story with a character so remarkably similar to Tony Garrido points clearly to Dos Passos choice to highlight the challenges of gender identity and it’s implications.
Tony Garrido self identifies with Valentino, insisting upon his chance for success in Hollywood, that “if Valentino can do it, it will be easy for me” (314). The similarities between the Garrido and Valentino are notable. Both are foreigners who hope to find fame, and start out dancing in cabarets. Tony and Valentino were both “stranded on the coast [and] headed for Hollywood, worked for a long time as an extra.” (150).But the similarities between these men go beyond superficial details. Holding up these figures for examination, Dos Passos allows for contemplation of binaries prompting the reader to consider how as a society and a culture we tend to privilege one and scorn the other. Some of the binaries explored by an examination of the Valentino/Garrido characters are straight/gay, public/private, artifice/authentic, foreigner/citizen all of which are based on perception. This idea may be illustrated by reading Valentino’s biography which emphasizes dreams – both in the the dreams he had for himself and for his future, but also of the creation of this man of questionable sexuality becoming the “gigolo of every woman’s dreams ” (Dos Passos 150). This passage can be seen to represent both Valentino’s idealism versus the realism of his early struggles, but it also suggests the binary of artifice versus authenticism.
The most provocative elements of the Valentino biography for this examination are the veiled references to homosexuality and descriptions of the relationship to his wife, which can be compared to Tony’s relationship with Margo. Details of his divorce according to the biography entitled “Adagio Dancer” indicate that he and his first wife never slept together, implying a marriage of convenience which would allow him to assume the constructed image of a married man. This deceit allowed Valentino to fulfill the lustful fantasies of his fans, while providing a cover of privacy allowing him to follow other pursuits. Though Margo and Tony are never revealed to have been intimate after their time together in Cuba, they continue their legal marriage and remain a constant in each other’s lives. Another significant detail which emerged from this section is that Rudolph Valentino wore a slave bracelet given to him by his wife. It is an object that implies a delineation of power and control in the relationship. Valentino’s wearing of the bracelet suggests subservience to her despite his expected masculine domination. Though Margo does not offer Tony a slave bracelet, she similarly marks his subservience with a concrete object, “she made him wear an old chauffeur’s uniform when he drove her to the lot. She knew that if he wore that he wouldn’t go anywhere after he’d left her except right home and change” (Dos Passos 316). The uniform served not only as a physical marker of Tony’s inferior role, but it allowed Margo to exert her dominance by controlling his behavior.
Valentino’s biography also describes his collapse, emergency surgery and death from infection which is ambiguous in nature. Readers of Dos Passos’s era would have been familiar with the rumors which surrounded his death and which ranged from the innocuous suggestion that he had died from a burst appendix to the more scandalous accusations that he had been shot by a gay lover or that he had contracted syphilis and succumbed to an infection because of it. Tony’s venereal disease, which he spreads to Margo and their baby is featured as a prominent plot element. Similarly to the Valentino account, allusions are made to Tony’s “secret disease,” – it is only through knowledge of his activity and deduction by the symptoms whch confirms to the reader that Tony has contracted a venereal disease (and infected his wife). This rising action of discovery of Tony’s syphilitic condition and its resulting death of her infant daughter, prompts Margo to flee from Tony. Though she is aware of the disease and it’s potentially permanent complications, she refuses to seek treatment for some time – further demonstrating her denial of Tony’s behavior and how his behavior and its consequences becomes her “secret” as well.
Tony’s constant presence drives or alters the action in each of the Dowling sections, which further support the claim that Tony is truly a main character. The only section of the novel in which Tony is not represented is in the section describing Margo’s youth - although even in this introduction, an incident is described which indicates an attraction for and desire to protect effeminate men. She is awarded with a prize at a boardwalk game booth by a foreign man described in effeminate terms: “Margie thought he was lovely, his face was so smooth and he had such a funny little voice and his lips and eyelids were so clearly marked just like the dolls’ and he had long black eyelashes too.” Margo’s attraction to the game attendant is more profound and indicates her desires, “Margie used to think she’d like to have him to take to bed with her like a doll. She said that Agnes and Frank laughed and laughed at her so that she felt awful ashamed.” (133-134). Her youthful wishes to take this man as a plaything to her bed – though innocently voiced - certainly indicate a physical attraction to men whose signifiers would indicate a definite preference for effeminate men. Her desire to treat him like a doll and protect him also indicates a nurturing side – which is internally conflicted because of the shame related to this desire, and will form the basis of her relationship with her future husband. Though not present physically in this section, the issues which Tony represents and Margo’s response to them are markedly clear.
Dos Passos intentionally crafted this lonely girl whose upbringing is void of traditional or conventional gender roles – she grows up with an absentee father and a surrogate motherer figure with whom she cannot relate – to become an extension or anchor for Tony’s character. Margo’s upbringing is designed to make her sympathetic to Tony’s flawed judgment and inability to conform and which make it impossible for him provide her with stability and provide her with the idealized husband figure she desires. One cannot overlook the similarities between Tony and Margo’s father – both are men who desired to live a traditional life, but whose addictions and lifestyles made that impossible. Both men ultimately disappoint Margo repeatedly, but she continues to hold out hope for them. Tony’s unexpected arrivals and departures, as well as brief flashes of happiness and normalcy are reminiscent of the limited happy experiences she would have as a child when Fred would return home, brightening her world. In Margo Dowling II (192-201), though Tony has abandoned her in a foreign country while he is being pursued by his male “friends,” Margo lashes out and literally beats him into submission – after which they are being described as “happy and cozy for the first time since arriving in Cuba” (195). Later in the novel, Margo is confronted by her estranged husband who is ill and she makes the decision to nurse him back to health in her hotel room. His presence forced her to alter the room registration, “it made her awful to have to write it down in the book Mr. and Mrs. Antonio de Garrido. Once it was written it didn’t look so bad though” (218). Margo’s use of Tony’s last name when she registers at a modeling agency upon arriving in Hollywood and her incorporation of his family history and culture into her created image indicates an ultimate acceptance of Tony. Though she is still hurt and perplexed by his dalliances with other men, and horrified by his behavior which is marked by lying and stealing, Margo continues to stand by Tony.
The final section on Margo Dowling (303-339) ends with the revelation of Tony’s death described in a newspaper article which a relieved Agnes shows to shocked Margo. Upon learning of his death, Margo demonstrates the most emotional response she has had throughout the novel. “Margo felt the room swinging in great circles around her head. “Oh, my God “she said. Going upstairs she had to hold tight to the balustrade to keep from falling. She tore off her clothes and ran herself a hot bath and lay back in it with her eyes closed” (338). Immediately upon learning of Tony’s death, Margo embarks on a staged marriage trip with Sam Margolies and her transition to completely artificial construct is complete. Tony therefore may seem, troubled and a source of pain for Margo (who at times lashed out because of her internal desire to force him to conform), but was what defined her humanity.
Though Margo is presented as a main character, The Big Money presents her life story and rise to celebrity only in the context of Tony’s experience. It is significant that Dos Passos symbolically represented Tony in Margo’s earliest experiences, interwove him through her narratives and then related biographies framing her and that the sections narrating Margo’s experience come abruptly to an end upon the death of her husband.
Philosopher Michel Foucault recognized those who fell outside of the accepted norms of sexual and gender identity as “other.” Those who were deemed to engage in “unnatural” sex practices were identified by some as a separate “species.” (Foucault 896). Dos Passos recognized the social oppression faced by homosexuals in the early part of the twentieth century in America which made it impossible for them to proclaim their sexual identity without fear of vicious attack. The inability for the character of Tony to claim a voice and speak openly of the pain of the queer experience and the persecution inflicted upon him by an unsympathetic world is personalized for the audience, in a nuanced manner which would begin to prompt society to view those relegated to the status of “other” as humanized. Tony Garrido’s embodiment of the overarching theme of “repression of dissent,” which is so significant to Dos Passos marks him as a significant voice within this novel – though he seems to have no voice at all.
Works Cited
Becker, George J. “Visions…” John Dos Passos. New York: Frederick Ungar, 1974. Galenet. Literature Resource Center. Oviatt Library, Northridge CA. 29 April 2009.
Butler, Judith. “Performative Acts and Gender Constitution.” Literary Theory: An Anthology. Eds. Julie Rivkin and Michael Rivkin. Malden: Blackwell, 2004. 900-911.
Casey, Janet Galligani. "Historicizing the female in U.S.A.: Re-visions of Dos Passo's trilogy." Twentieth Century Literature 41.16 (Fall95 1995): 249. MAS Ultra - School Edition. EBSCO. Oviatt Library, Northridge, CA. 29 Apr 2009.
Dos Pasosos, John. The Big Money. Boston: Mariner Books. 1933.
Eduards, Justin J. “The Man with a Camera Eye: Cinematic Form and Hollywood Malediction in John Dos Passos's "The Big Money." Literature Film Quarterly. Vol 27. Iss 4. 1999. 245-255. Communication and Mass Media Database. EBSCO. Oviatt Library, Northridge, CA. 29 April 2009.
Foucault, Michel. “The History of Sexuality.” Literary Theory: An Anthology. Eds. Julie Rivkin and Michael Rivkin. Malden: Blackwell, 2004. 549-565
Keire, Mara. “Dope fiends and degenerates: the gendering of addiction in the early twentieth century.” Journal of Social History. Volume: 31. Issue: 4. 1998. Page Number: 809+. Questia. 27 Apr 2009. http://www.questia.com.
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Wednesday, December 16, 2009
Modeling Knowledge Acquisition as a Key to Success in Remediation Students
New realities in post secondary education are prompting educators, students, legislators and taxpayers to question the appropriateness and efficacy of remediation or “developmental education” at four year colleges and universities throughout America. The catalyst for the debate on remediation in the college setting was the decision by the Board of Trustees at CUNY to phase out remedial course work in the four year colleges in New York, limiting students in need of developmental education to the area’s community college system. Many colleges and four year institutions throughout the country are now considering joining CUNY, opting to either refuse to accept students who meet minimal criteria or by making admission conditional upon meeting certain requirements in a timely manner (Richardson).
The implications for the decision to completely eliminate remediation from the university setting are broad and profound for the individual, the educational institution and society. The educational system must scrutinize how K-12 programs are failing and explore what changes need to be made to produce students who are prepared to compete and produce on the college level – a goal that will require the collaborative effort of all levels of the educational system. But a more immediate approach is required to address those skills deficient students who are already engaged in the post-secondary educational system. Remediation on the university level is failing. Statistics clearly show that there is incredible need to address the deficiencies of these students, with roughly 1/3 of all students enrolled in public colleges and universities in need of at least one remediated course in their college career. With current remediation services in place nationally, the student who takes 1-2 remediation classes is half as likely to graduate with a four year degree within eight years as their peers, and for those who must take four remedial classes; there is only a 19% chance of graduating within eight years. The statistics which illustrate the state of need for remediation and the long term educational outcomes of students who receive such services in a university setting is discouraging, but should serve as a clarion call for innovation and reconsideration about the best ways to facilitate the knowledge acquisition and skill development of these at risk students.
The need to remediate students on the college level, though currently experiencing a renewed sense of public awareness, has a well documented past. Professor of Education, Mike Rose, points out that “since the middle of the last century, American colleges have been establishing various kinds of preparatory programs and classes within their halls to maintain enrollments while bringing their entering students up to par” (Miller 593). In his article, “The Language of Exclusion,” Rose explores the historical and social designation of such unprepared students as deficient. During the early part of the 20th century, advances were being made in education research which would better quantify skill sets which were in need of improvement. Students thus began to be categorized and segregated based upon their shortcomings and weaknesses. Labeling remediation students as somehow deficient or lacking made it easy to marginalize them, removing them from the breadth of the college experience. Rose designates this separation as a form of “scholastic quarantine until their disease can be diagnosed and remedied” (Miller, 596).
Though these students may be categorized by their documented need, they represent a diverse set of demographics which indicate that it will likely be impossible to cause an impact with a single solution. Students may arrive unprepared to perform college level work for various reasons. Students who experience language barriers, returning adult students and those with disabilities (both learning and physical) often require some level of remediation. Students transitioning from high school to college may also require additional preparation, but the statistics fail to take into account overall individual performance and strength of skill sets. Most students who transition directly from high school to a four year institution have performed well (sometimes completing honors level classes), earned their diploma and met the basic college entrance requirements (including grade point average and SAT scores) – as determined by the college.
Though the educational and socio-economic backgrounds of these students are representative of a broad set of circumstances, they commonly lack role models who are able to help them navigate the protocols and expectations of learning on the post secondary level. More than half of these students emerge from homes where the parents have not gone to college. Though involved and thoughtful college counselors can be extremely helpful, (sometimes making the difference in a students’ educational journey,) the role of these professionals is often limited or nearly non existent due to budgetary constraints. Even when seeking assistance from an advisor is an option, the student may feel fear and intimidation and the inability to connect with and seek help from authoritarian figures within the educational establishment (Hollis). In fact for many who are unable to acclimate to the increased stress of competing in a second language, juggling work and domestic responsibilities and for some living away from home for the first time, the college experience can be demoralizing and isolating. Placing these students in classes populated only by other remedial students further ostracizes them and presents a further barrier to providing them with successful role models in the form of other academically successful students.
In the effort to quantify what these students have learned and analyze their shortcomings, we have failed to consider how they learn and tailor remediation efforts with that in mind. David Bleich discusses the natural pattern of human knowledge acquisition in his article “The Materiality of Language and the Pedagogy of Exchange.” He chronicles a two step approach by which he claims we learn. .He focuses on a mutual design of exchange, or modeling and reciprocation, through which we engage in active learning through exposure and interpersonal relations, which help the learner to absorb and assimilate information in an impactful way.
Students who participate in collaborative classroom settings which emphasize activities such as peer editing and student constructed exercises tend to have a greater grasp of the material. Bleich states that such scholarly echange “gives students access to these processes, authorizes them to judge and review the language they receive, and establishes their interests and ability to participate in the exchanges. Questions of imitation and emulation then appear” (Bleich).
One example of this may be found a study of collaborative education involving remediation students which was conducted by Kimberly Kinsler of Hunter College. Her objective was to determine the effectiveness of peer collaboration to determine its efficacy in helping the students to pass the writing exam which they were required to take. Kessler’s study ultimately failed to demonstrate that the students would improve enough to receive a passing score on the exam. Although the students showed improvement, technical writing errors, which she attributed to their status as English Language Learners continued to present an obstacle. However, Kinsler’s study was successful in demonstrating three modeling aspects which may help to improve the effectiveness of helping skills challenged students achieve. Kinsler provided direction in terms of the regulated activities which she assigned; she literally produced worksheets which outlined the methods by which the groups were to run the peer editing sessions. She reports that at first the students felt confused and uncertain about their tasks and ability to achieve their goals, but within weeks the students were no longer dependent upon the guided exercises and were able to self direct. The students were ultimately able to abandon the worksheets because they had become aware of techniques and methods necessary for their task and were eventually able to assimilate them when editing other’s papers, but perhaps more significantly they were able to incorporate these strategies when writing their own papers. She also compelled the students to involve themselves in a reciprocation of the learning process where they were actively engaged in the assignments. By discussing the writing assignments and the editorial aspects which were proposed, the students had to critique the work of a classmate, but also were placed in a position of having to explain and debate the reasoning making formerly unfamiliar concepts more concrete and providing the students with a sense of mastery. Finally, the group exercises helped the students to develop a community approach. This interpersonal approach is key, because it not only exposes the students to their peers who might be deemed less intimidating and therefore more receptive of criticism, but it also exposed the students to the level of work produced by other students. Kinsler’s study though not ultimately successful for her specific design, is important because it demonstrates that combining methods of modeling 1) in guided form 2) reciprocation and 3) interpersonal relations can assist students to gain metacognitive awareness.
Typically students identified as being in developmental education have been separated from their academically proficient peers. We have relegated these students to a socially constructed academic exile of remediation, without the tools or examples necessary to learn the skills which will help them overcome their barriers. It is clear from studies like Kinsler’s that these students are able to internalize many of the technical and social skills which will help them develop into good students. The element missing or in need of refinement in most developmental students is knowing how to learn and become good students. Essentially we have compounded their difficulties by removing them from university experience, segregating them from likely mentors and peers who could model metacognitive awareness.
Academically successful students have been identified as such because they have learned to navigate the process of becoming educated, by learning the study, time management skills and juggling of responsibilities, as well how to resolve or maneuver around difficult materials or professors. Successful students have developed a three prong approach to their education which includes “awareness,” “planning” and “monitoring/reflection.” “Awareness” involves the self inventory of defining goals, resources (both internal and external), and motivational level, by assessing these and other factors, these students are able to plan realistically. “Planning” involves arrangement and preparation of study schedules and task deadlines, organizing materials and breaking assignments and projects into manageable steps. Finally the successful student recognizes the need for “monitoring and reflection.” During this phase the student reviews overall goals and determines what methods have been most helpful and reconsiders where additional attention or effort is required. Though typical college students have internalized these abilities, most continue to regularly model and reinforce these skills amongst their peers in casual conversations outside of class time, by comparing research topics and materials, comparing grades and forming study groups or sharing notes. As Bleich suggested, they reciprocate and form interpersonal communications which promote knowledge acquisition. Just as in the Kinsler study, these metacognitive concepts and skills are techniques which can be modeled by typically advancing students and reinforced through regular contact and collaboration in academic projects with students who are in need.
It is easy to designate blame for the inability of students to perform on the college level, and easier still to eliminate the need to serve these students by completely eliminating such courses in four year institutions. Clearly the need felt by this student population is not being diminished by current efforts and new perspectives and strategies must be considered to assist in finally addressing this need. not labeling and segregating it, but will honor each student for the skills and experience they bring and by developing and applying strategies which using will help to further strengthen and develop each student so that they may achieve.
Works Cited
Bleich, David. “The Materiality of Language and the Pedagogy of Exchange.” Pedagogy 1.1 (2001) 117-141. http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/pedagogy/v001/1.1bleich.html
Diploma to Nowhere. Rep. Strong American Schools. Web. 25 Oct. 2009.
Hamilton, Kendra. "Rhetoric Vs. Reality." Black Issues in Higher Education 18.21 (2001): 31-34. EBSCOhost. Web. 25 Oct. 2009.
Hollis, Leah P. "Academic Advising in the Wonderland of College for Developmental Students." College Student Journal 43.1 (2009): 31-35. EBSCOhost. Web. 25 Oct. 2009.
Perkins- Gough, D. "Unprepared for College." Educational Leadership 66.3 (2008): 88-89. Wilson Web. Web. 25 Oct. 2009.
Rose, Mike. “The Language of Exclusion.” The Norton Book of Composition.” Ed. Miller, Susan. Norton: New York. 2009. 586 - -603.
Kinsler, Kimberly. “Structured Peer Collaboration: Teaching Essay Revision to College Students Needing Remediation.” Cognition and Instruction. 1990. 303-321.
Richardson, Jeanita W. ""Who Shall be Educated?": The case for Restricting Remediation at the City University of New York." Education and Urban Society 37.2 (2005): 174-92. Http://eus.sagepub.com. Web. 25 Oct. 2009.
Modeling Knowledge Acquisition as a Key to Success in Remediation Students
New realities in post secondary education are prompting educators, students, legislators and taxpayers to question the appropriateness and efficacy of remediation or “developmental education” at four year colleges and universities throughout America. The catalyst for the debate on remediation in the college setting was the decision by the Board of Trustees at CUNY to phase out remedial course work in the four year colleges in New York, limiting students in need of developmental education to the area’s community college system. Many colleges and four year institutions throughout the country are now considering joining CUNY, opting to either refuse to accept students who meet minimal criteria or by making admission conditional upon meeting certain requirements in a timely manner (Richardson).
The implications for the decision to completely eliminate remediation from the university setting are broad and profound for the individual, the educational institution and society. The educational system must scrutinize how K-12 programs are failing and explore what changes need to be made to produce students who are prepared to compete and produce on the college level – a goal that will require the collaborative effort of all levels of the educational system. But a more immediate approach is required to address those skills deficient students who are already engaged in the post-secondary educational system. Remediation on the university level is failing. Statistics clearly show that there is incredible need to address the deficiencies of these students, with roughly 1/3 of all students enrolled in public colleges and universities in need of at least one remediated course in their college career. With current remediation services in place nationally, the student who takes 1-2 remediation classes is half as likely to graduate with a four year degree within eight years as their peers, and for those who must take four remedial classes; there is only a 19% chance of graduating within eight years. The statistics which illustrate the state of need for remediation and the long term educational outcomes of students who receive such services in a university setting is discouraging, but should serve as a clarion call for innovation and reconsideration about the best ways to facilitate the knowledge acquisition and skill development of these at risk students.
The need to remediate students on the college level, though currently experiencing a renewed sense of public awareness, has a well documented past. Professor of Education, Mike Rose, points out that “since the middle of the last century, American colleges have been establishing various kinds of preparatory programs and classes within their halls to maintain enrollments while bringing their entering students up to par” (Miller 593). In his article, “The Language of Exclusion,” Rose explores the historical and social designation of such unprepared students as deficient. During the early part of the 20th century, advances were being made in education research which would better quantify skill sets which were in need of improvement. Students thus began to be categorized and segregated based upon their shortcomings and weaknesses. Labeling remediation students as somehow deficient or lacking made it easy to marginalize them, removing them from the breadth of the college experience. Rose designates this separation as a form of “scholastic quarantine until their disease can be diagnosed and remedied” (Miller, 596).
Though these students may be categorized by their documented need, they represent a diverse set of demographics which indicate that it will likely be impossible to cause an impact with a single solution. Students may arrive unprepared to perform college level work for various reasons. Students who experience language barriers, returning adult students and those with disabilities (both learning and physical) often require some level of remediation. Students transitioning from high school to college may also require additional preparation, but the statistics fail to take into account overall individual performance and strength of skill sets. Most students who transition directly from high school to a four year institution have performed well (sometimes completing honors level classes), earned their diploma and met the basic college entrance requirements (including grade point average and SAT scores) – as determined by the college.
Though the educational and socio-economic backgrounds of these students are representative of a broad set of circumstances, they commonly lack role models who are able to help them navigate the protocols and expectations of learning on the post secondary level. More than half of these students emerge from homes where the parents have not gone to college. Though involved and thoughtful college counselors can be extremely helpful, (sometimes making the difference in a students’ educational journey,) the role of these professionals is often limited or nearly non existent due to budgetary constraints. Even when seeking assistance from an advisor is an option, the student may feel fear and intimidation and the inability to connect with and seek help from authoritarian figures within the educational establishment (Hollis). In fact for many who are unable to acclimate to the increased stress of competing in a second language, juggling work and domestic responsibilities and for some living away from home for the first time, the college experience can be demoralizing and isolating. Placing these students in classes populated only by other remedial students further ostracizes them and presents a further barrier to providing them with successful role models in the form of other academically successful students.
In the effort to quantify what these students have learned and analyze their shortcomings, we have failed to consider how they learn and tailor remediation efforts with that in mind.
David Bleich discusses the natural pattern of human knowledge acquisition in his article “The Materiality of Language and the Pedagogy of Exchange.” He chronicles a two step approach by which he claims we learn. .He focuses on a mutual design of exchange, or modeling and reciprocation, through which we engage in active learning through exposure and interpersonal relations, which help the learner to absorb and assimilate information in an impactful way.
Students who participate in collaborative classroom settings which emphasize activities such as peer editing and student constructed exercises tend to have a greater grasp of the material. Bleich states that such scholarly echange “gives students access to these processes, authorizes them to judge and review the language they receive, and establishes their interests and ability to participate in the exchanges. Questions of imitation and emulation then appear” (Bleich). One example of this may be found a study of collaborative education involving remediation students which was conducted by Kimberly Kinsler of Hunter College. Her objective was to determine the effectiveness of peer collaboration to determine its efficacy in helping the students to pass the writing exam which they were required to take. Kessler’s study ultimately failed to demonstrate that the students would improve enough to receive a passing score on the exam. Although the students showed improvement, technical writing errors, which she attributed to their status as English Language Learners continued to present an obstacle. However, Kinsler’s study was successful in demonstrating three modeling aspects which may help to improve the effectiveness of helping skills challenged students achieve. Kinsler provided direction in terms of the regulated activities which she assigned; she literally produced worksheets which outlined the methods by which the groups were to run the peer editing sessions. She reports that at first the students felt confused and uncertain about their tasks and ability to achieve their goals, but within weeks the students were no longer dependent upon the guided exercises and were able to self direct. The students were ultimately able to abandon the worksheets because they had become aware of techniques and methods necessary for their task and were eventually able to assimilate them when editing other’s papers, but perhaps more significantly they were able to incorporate these strategies when writing their own papers. She also compelled the students to involve themselves in a reciprocation of the learning process where they were actively engaged in the assignments. By discussing the writing assignments and the editorial aspects which were proposed, the students had to critique the work of a classmate, but also were placed in a position of having to explain and debate the reasoning making formerly unfamiliar concepts more concrete and providing the students with a sense of mastery. Finally, the group exercises helped the students to develop a community approach. This interpersonal approach is key, because it not only exposes the students to their peers who might be deemed less intimidating and therefore more receptive of criticism, but it also exposed the students to the level of work produced by other students. Kinsler’s study though not ultimately successful for her specific design, is important because it demonstrates that combining methods of modeling 1) in guided form 2) reciprocation and 3) interpersonal relations can assist students to gain metacognitive awareness.
Typically students identified as being in developmental education have been separated from their academically proficient peers. We have relegated these students to a socially constructed academic exile of remediation, without the tools or examples necessary to learn the skills which will help them overcome their barriers. It is clear from studies like Kinsler’s that these students are able to internalize many of the technical and social skills which will help them develop into good students. The element missing or in need of refinement in most developmental students is knowing how to learn and become good students. Essentially we have compounded their difficulties by removing them from university experience, segregating them from likely mentors and peers who could model metacognitive awareness.
Academically successful students have been identified as such because they have learned to navigate the process of becoming educated, by learning the study, time management skills and juggling of responsibilities, as well how to resolve or maneuver around difficult materials or professors. Successful students have developed a three prong approach to their education which includes “awareness,” “planning” and “monitoring/reflection.” “Awareness” involves the self inventory of defining goals, resources (both internal and external), and motivational level, by assessing these and other factors, these students are able to plan realistically. “Planning” involves arrangement and preparation of study schedules and task deadlines, organizing materials and breaking assignments and projects into manageable steps. Finally the successful student recognizes the need for “monitoring and reflection.” During this phase the student reviews overall goals and determines what methods have been most helpful and reconsiders where additional attention or effort is required. Though typical college students have internalized these abilities, most continue to regularly model and reinforce these skills amongst their peers in casual conversations outside of class time, by comparing research topics and materials, comparing grades and forming study groups or sharing notes. As Bleich suggested, they reciprocate and form interpersonal communications which promote knowledge acquisition.
Just as in the Kinsler study, these metacognitive concepts and skills are techniques which can be modeled by typically advancing students and reinforced through regular contact and collaboration in academic projects with students who are in need.
It is easy to designate blame for the inability of students to perform on the college level, and easier still to eliminate the need to serve these students by completely eliminating such courses in four year institutions. Clearly the need felt by this student population is not being diminished by current efforts and new perspectives and strategies must be considered to assist in finally addressing this need. not labeling and segregating it, but will honor each student for the skills and experience they bring and by developing and applying strategies which using will help to further strengthen and develop each student so that they may achieve.
Works Cited
Bleich, David. “The Materiality of Language and the Pedagogy of Exchange.” Pedagogy 1.1 (2001) 117-141. http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/pedagogy/v001/1.1bleich.html
Diploma to Nowhere. Rep. Strong American Schools. Web. 25 Oct. 2009..
Hamilton, Kendra. "Rhetoric Vs. Reality." Black Issues in Higher Education 18.21 (2001): 31-34. EBSCOhost. Web. 25 Oct. 2009..
Hollis, Leah P. "Academic Advising in the Wonderland of College for Developmental Students." College Student Journal 43.1 (2009): 31-35. EBSCOhost. Web. 25 Oct. 2009..
Perkins- Gough, D. "Unprepared for College." Educational Leadership 66.3 (2008): 88-89. Wilson Web. Web. 25 Oct. 2009..
Rose, Mike. “The Language of Exclusion.” The Norton Book of Composition.” Ed. Miller, Susan. Norton: New York. 2009. 586 - -603.
Kinsler, Kimberly. “Structured Peer Collaboration: Teaching Essay Revision to College Students Needing Remediation.” Cognition and Instruction. 1990. 303-321.
Richardson, Jeanita W. ""Who Shall be Educated?": The case for Restricting Remediation at the City University of New York." Education and Urban Society 37.2 (2005): 174-92. Http://eus.sagepub.com. Web. 25 Oct. 2009.
The implications for the decision to completely eliminate remediation from the university setting are broad and profound for the individual, the educational institution and society. The educational system must scrutinize how K-12 programs are failing and explore what changes need to be made to produce students who are prepared to compete and produce on the college level – a goal that will require the collaborative effort of all levels of the educational system. But a more immediate approach is required to address those skills deficient students who are already engaged in the post-secondary educational system. Remediation on the university level is failing. Statistics clearly show that there is incredible need to address the deficiencies of these students, with roughly 1/3 of all students enrolled in public colleges and universities in need of at least one remediated course in their college career. With current remediation services in place nationally, the student who takes 1-2 remediation classes is half as likely to graduate with a four year degree within eight years as their peers, and for those who must take four remedial classes; there is only a 19% chance of graduating within eight years. The statistics which illustrate the state of need for remediation and the long term educational outcomes of students who receive such services in a university setting is discouraging, but should serve as a clarion call for innovation and reconsideration about the best ways to facilitate the knowledge acquisition and skill development of these at risk students.
The need to remediate students on the college level, though currently experiencing a renewed sense of public awareness, has a well documented past. Professor of Education, Mike Rose, points out that “since the middle of the last century, American colleges have been establishing various kinds of preparatory programs and classes within their halls to maintain enrollments while bringing their entering students up to par” (Miller 593). In his article, “The Language of Exclusion,” Rose explores the historical and social designation of such unprepared students as deficient. During the early part of the 20th century, advances were being made in education research which would better quantify skill sets which were in need of improvement. Students thus began to be categorized and segregated based upon their shortcomings and weaknesses. Labeling remediation students as somehow deficient or lacking made it easy to marginalize them, removing them from the breadth of the college experience. Rose designates this separation as a form of “scholastic quarantine until their disease can be diagnosed and remedied” (Miller, 596).
Though these students may be categorized by their documented need, they represent a diverse set of demographics which indicate that it will likely be impossible to cause an impact with a single solution. Students may arrive unprepared to perform college level work for various reasons. Students who experience language barriers, returning adult students and those with disabilities (both learning and physical) often require some level of remediation. Students transitioning from high school to college may also require additional preparation, but the statistics fail to take into account overall individual performance and strength of skill sets. Most students who transition directly from high school to a four year institution have performed well (sometimes completing honors level classes), earned their diploma and met the basic college entrance requirements (including grade point average and SAT scores) – as determined by the college.
Though the educational and socio-economic backgrounds of these students are representative of a broad set of circumstances, they commonly lack role models who are able to help them navigate the protocols and expectations of learning on the post secondary level. More than half of these students emerge from homes where the parents have not gone to college. Though involved and thoughtful college counselors can be extremely helpful, (sometimes making the difference in a students’ educational journey,) the role of these professionals is often limited or nearly non existent due to budgetary constraints. Even when seeking assistance from an advisor is an option, the student may feel fear and intimidation and the inability to connect with and seek help from authoritarian figures within the educational establishment (Hollis). In fact for many who are unable to acclimate to the increased stress of competing in a second language, juggling work and domestic responsibilities and for some living away from home for the first time, the college experience can be demoralizing and isolating. Placing these students in classes populated only by other remedial students further ostracizes them and presents a further barrier to providing them with successful role models in the form of other academically successful students.
In the effort to quantify what these students have learned and analyze their shortcomings, we have failed to consider how they learn and tailor remediation efforts with that in mind.
David Bleich discusses the natural pattern of human knowledge acquisition in his article “The Materiality of Language and the Pedagogy of Exchange.” He chronicles a two step approach by which he claims we learn. .He focuses on a mutual design of exchange, or modeling and reciprocation, through which we engage in active learning through exposure and interpersonal relations, which help the learner to absorb and assimilate information in an impactful way.
Students who participate in collaborative classroom settings which emphasize activities such as peer editing and student constructed exercises tend to have a greater grasp of the material. Bleich states that such scholarly echange “gives students access to these processes, authorizes them to judge and review the language they receive, and establishes their interests and ability to participate in the exchanges. Questions of imitation and emulation then appear” (Bleich). One example of this may be found a study of collaborative education involving remediation students which was conducted by Kimberly Kinsler of Hunter College. Her objective was to determine the effectiveness of peer collaboration to determine its efficacy in helping the students to pass the writing exam which they were required to take. Kessler’s study ultimately failed to demonstrate that the students would improve enough to receive a passing score on the exam. Although the students showed improvement, technical writing errors, which she attributed to their status as English Language Learners continued to present an obstacle. However, Kinsler’s study was successful in demonstrating three modeling aspects which may help to improve the effectiveness of helping skills challenged students achieve. Kinsler provided direction in terms of the regulated activities which she assigned; she literally produced worksheets which outlined the methods by which the groups were to run the peer editing sessions. She reports that at first the students felt confused and uncertain about their tasks and ability to achieve their goals, but within weeks the students were no longer dependent upon the guided exercises and were able to self direct. The students were ultimately able to abandon the worksheets because they had become aware of techniques and methods necessary for their task and were eventually able to assimilate them when editing other’s papers, but perhaps more significantly they were able to incorporate these strategies when writing their own papers. She also compelled the students to involve themselves in a reciprocation of the learning process where they were actively engaged in the assignments. By discussing the writing assignments and the editorial aspects which were proposed, the students had to critique the work of a classmate, but also were placed in a position of having to explain and debate the reasoning making formerly unfamiliar concepts more concrete and providing the students with a sense of mastery. Finally, the group exercises helped the students to develop a community approach. This interpersonal approach is key, because it not only exposes the students to their peers who might be deemed less intimidating and therefore more receptive of criticism, but it also exposed the students to the level of work produced by other students. Kinsler’s study though not ultimately successful for her specific design, is important because it demonstrates that combining methods of modeling 1) in guided form 2) reciprocation and 3) interpersonal relations can assist students to gain metacognitive awareness.
Typically students identified as being in developmental education have been separated from their academically proficient peers. We have relegated these students to a socially constructed academic exile of remediation, without the tools or examples necessary to learn the skills which will help them overcome their barriers. It is clear from studies like Kinsler’s that these students are able to internalize many of the technical and social skills which will help them develop into good students. The element missing or in need of refinement in most developmental students is knowing how to learn and become good students. Essentially we have compounded their difficulties by removing them from university experience, segregating them from likely mentors and peers who could model metacognitive awareness.
Academically successful students have been identified as such because they have learned to navigate the process of becoming educated, by learning the study, time management skills and juggling of responsibilities, as well how to resolve or maneuver around difficult materials or professors. Successful students have developed a three prong approach to their education which includes “awareness,” “planning” and “monitoring/reflection.” “Awareness” involves the self inventory of defining goals, resources (both internal and external), and motivational level, by assessing these and other factors, these students are able to plan realistically. “Planning” involves arrangement and preparation of study schedules and task deadlines, organizing materials and breaking assignments and projects into manageable steps. Finally the successful student recognizes the need for “monitoring and reflection.” During this phase the student reviews overall goals and determines what methods have been most helpful and reconsiders where additional attention or effort is required. Though typical college students have internalized these abilities, most continue to regularly model and reinforce these skills amongst their peers in casual conversations outside of class time, by comparing research topics and materials, comparing grades and forming study groups or sharing notes. As Bleich suggested, they reciprocate and form interpersonal communications which promote knowledge acquisition.
Just as in the Kinsler study, these metacognitive concepts and skills are techniques which can be modeled by typically advancing students and reinforced through regular contact and collaboration in academic projects with students who are in need.
It is easy to designate blame for the inability of students to perform on the college level, and easier still to eliminate the need to serve these students by completely eliminating such courses in four year institutions. Clearly the need felt by this student population is not being diminished by current efforts and new perspectives and strategies must be considered to assist in finally addressing this need. not labeling and segregating it, but will honor each student for the skills and experience they bring and by developing and applying strategies which using will help to further strengthen and develop each student so that they may achieve.
Works Cited
Bleich, David. “The Materiality of Language and the Pedagogy of Exchange.” Pedagogy 1.1 (2001) 117-141. http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/pedagogy/v001/1.1bleich.html
Diploma to Nowhere. Rep. Strong American Schools. Web. 25 Oct. 2009.
Hamilton, Kendra. "Rhetoric Vs. Reality." Black Issues in Higher Education 18.21 (2001): 31-34. EBSCOhost. Web. 25 Oct. 2009.
Hollis, Leah P. "Academic Advising in the Wonderland of College for Developmental Students." College Student Journal 43.1 (2009): 31-35. EBSCOhost. Web. 25 Oct. 2009.
Perkins- Gough, D. "Unprepared for College." Educational Leadership 66.3 (2008): 88-89. Wilson Web. Web. 25 Oct. 2009.
Rose, Mike. “The Language of Exclusion.” The Norton Book of Composition.” Ed. Miller, Susan. Norton: New York. 2009. 586 - -603.
Kinsler, Kimberly. “Structured Peer Collaboration: Teaching Essay Revision to College Students Needing Remediation.” Cognition and Instruction. 1990. 303-321.
Richardson, Jeanita W. ""Who Shall be Educated?": The case for Restricting Remediation at the City University of New York." Education and Urban Society 37.2 (2005): 174-92. Http://eus.sagepub.com. Web. 25 Oct. 2009.
Royster and Respecting Other VOices
In her essay, "When the First Voice You Hear is Not Your Own," Jacqueline Jones Royster asks "How can we teach, engage in research, write about, and talk about boundaries with others, instead of for, about, and around them?...How do we demonstrate that we honor and respect the person talking...?" In the essay she recounts listening to colleagues discuss works over which she felt cultural ownership and she relates the "rage" she felt when others interpreted these works in a manner which she felt was pompous and ignorant. Royster argues that these colleagues used authoritative vcoices, and she describes this by employing Tillie Olsen's terminology "trespass vision," in which the critic relies on imagination or intellect to interpret, rather than "lived experience". She implies that in her case, her readings of African American literature/history are more credible - because she can culturally identify and has lived the experience. While it is true that her experience may give her insight (and I do think it does), I think that she sells other academics short by implying that they are only able to acess the simple story and entertaining tale rather than the multilayered richness which can be revealed by careful study and examination. I think she fails to recognize ideas and concepts which are universally accessible regardless of race, gender, culture or experience. And ften times commentary from outside of a group may prove to be more insightful than from those within, because there is a distance and ability to be honest - also the reader or critic may also be able to see a more broad or general impression, that those within the group are too close to be able to discern.
Royster argues that we need to incorporate "codes of behavior that can sustain more concretely notions of honor, respect and good manners across boundaries." She insists upon the idea that we should allow individual voices (like hers), but in questioning the credibility and value of other perspectives who are not culturally priveleged to a specific piece of literature isn't she continuing to be intolerant or disrespectful - only to the other group on the other side of the boundary? She believes that we should adopt a concept of "home training" essentially "doing unto others" and yet by priveleging the insight of any one group, isn't she discrediting or lessening the signifigance of what others add to the discourse? I agree that there should be a tolerance of different opinions and that there is room for diverse interpretation based upon culture and experience - this is what makes literature so rich and diverse, but I think it is the accusations and exclusionary elitism on all sides of the boundary which leave students feeling alienated and disheartened.
Royster argues that we need to incorporate "codes of behavior that can sustain more concretely notions of honor, respect and good manners across boundaries." She insists upon the idea that we should allow individual voices (like hers), but in questioning the credibility and value of other perspectives who are not culturally priveleged to a specific piece of literature isn't she continuing to be intolerant or disrespectful - only to the other group on the other side of the boundary? She believes that we should adopt a concept of "home training" essentially "doing unto others" and yet by priveleging the insight of any one group, isn't she discrediting or lessening the signifigance of what others add to the discourse? I agree that there should be a tolerance of different opinions and that there is room for diverse interpretation based upon culture and experience - this is what makes literature so rich and diverse, but I think it is the accusations and exclusionary elitism on all sides of the boundary which leave students feeling alienated and disheartened.
Distinctive Oratory for Every Age
"Why now is it, do you suppose, that nearly every age has produced its own distinctive
style of oratory?"
While reading Crassus assertion that an orator's training must include intensive education
upon a wide array of subjects I found myself judging this idea by modern standards. I
agree with Courtney's statement that such knowledge would be admirable but is
idealistic. I found myself considering those persons who are considered to be
exceptional contemporary orators - and applying Crassus standards to them. While it is
true that they must have deep knowledge in the law, and knowledge and experience
generally available to " well bred" society - they rely on the expertise of those who are
paramount in their fields. Our generations access to an incredible array of extremely
detailed information surely impacts the modern orator and audience in ways that these
early rhetoricians could never have imagined.
style of oratory?"
While reading Crassus assertion that an orator's training must include intensive education
upon a wide array of subjects I found myself judging this idea by modern standards. I
agree with Courtney's statement that such knowledge would be admirable but is
idealistic. I found myself considering those persons who are considered to be
exceptional contemporary orators - and applying Crassus standards to them. While it is
true that they must have deep knowledge in the law, and knowledge and experience
generally available to " well bred" society - they rely on the expertise of those who are
paramount in their fields. Our generations access to an incredible array of extremely
detailed information surely impacts the modern orator and audience in ways that these
early rhetoricians could never have imagined.
Should Remediation be Eliminated on the College Level
New realities in post secondary education are prompting educators, students, legislators and taxpayers to question the appropriateness and efficacy of remediation or “developmental education” at four year colleges and universities throughout America. The catalyst for the debate on remediation in the college setting was the decision by the Board of Trustees at CUNY to phase out remedial course work in the four year colleges in New York, limiting students in need of developmental education to the area’s community college system. Many colleges and four year institutions throughout the country are now considering joining CUNY, opting to either refuse to accept students who meet minimal criteria or by making admission conditional upon meeting certain requirements in a timely manner. I will argue that limiting educational avenues compromises educational equity which is promoted by the American ideals of equality and self improvement through education.
The rhetorical arguments to preserve the integrity of the university as an elite enclave of higher learning are many and faceted. Defenders of this policy shift employ a mixture of rhetorical appeals – focusing mainly upon logos or the scientific proof of statistics which illustrate the state of need for remediation and the discouraging long term educational outcomes of students who receive such services in a university setting. The statistics also evidence the assertion that time and resources are diverted from other college ready students in the learning environment – reframing the question of education equity and the societal implications. Another factor which can be quantified is the burdensome tuition costs for remediation at the university level, both for taxpayers, students and their families. As a nation, currently under extreme budgetary constraints, we must determine at what cost we will continue to subsidize the education of people who are statistically unlikely to succeed.
While I agree that the University is not intended to be a haven for substandard students, statistics reveal that students may arrive unprepared to perform college level work for various reasons. Students who experience language barriers, returning adult students and those with disabilities (both learning and physical) often require some level of remediation, but this necessity does not conclusively prove that they are incompetent college students incapable of mastering the curriculum. Many of the issues facing these students may be adequately addressed through appropriate counseling and support services. To deny these students entrance to the University would deprive the institution of the diversity of student population which is often sought. Additionally the increased time, cost and difficulty of pursuing remedial education prior to university admission may serve as a deterrent to reaching long-term educational goals. Unable to improve their job prospects, some of these students will become a financial burden to society.
Students transitioning from high school to college may also require some level of remediation, but the statistics fails to take into account overall individual performance and strength of skill sets. Most students who transition directly from high school to a four year institution have performed well (sometimes completing honors level classes), earned their diploma and met the basic college entrance requirements (including grade point average and SAT scores) – as determined by the college. Relegating the unprepared high school students to remediation at community colleges superficially addresses the issue, but will perpetuate a cycle of exclusion and elitism in four year colleges and universities.
The implications for the decision to completely eliminate remediation from the university setting are broad and profound for the individual, the educational institution and society. Individuals who require additional preparation must choose to accept limited academic choice or refrain from pursuing higher learning. The educational system must scrutinize how K-12 programs are failing and explore what changes need to be made to produce students who are prepared to compete and produce on the college level – a goal that will require the collaborative effort of all levels of the educational system.
Annotated Bibliography
Diploma to Nowhere. Rep. Strong American Schools. Web. 25 Oct. 2009..
This report offers thorough and current statistics on national rates for remediation and the costs involved. It explores the experience of high school students transitioning to college, including polling on their perceived level of preparedness before and after beginning college courses. The objective of this report is to be the impetus for school reform, so it uses information that puts the effectiveness of high school education and college preparation completely ineffective. This report is cited in several of the other articles in this bibliography, so although it is not a journal article I felt it was important to include it.
Hamilton, Kendra. "Rhetoric Vs. Reality." Black Issues in Higher Education 18.21 (2001): 31-34. EBSCOhost. Web. 25 Oct. 2009..
Hamilton’s article attempts to correct misperceptions in the debate about developmental education, putting into perspective the total cost of remediation in higher education. She also explores the stigma associated with remediation and challenges the ideas that minorities require more remediation than whites, or that students who are accepted into Ivy League Institutions do not require remediation. This article offers answers to several of the assertions made in the case for eliminating remediation, and stresses the positive outcome of students who receive developmental education.
Hollis, Leah P. "Academic Advising in the Wonderland of College for Developmental Students." College Student Journal 43.1 (2009): 31-35. EBSCOhost. Web. 25 Oct. 2009..
Hollis articulates the belief that many developmental students are often plagued by poor preparation and difficult socioeconomic situations which make attaining success in a university setting near impossible. She suggests an advisement model designed to help support and encourage these high risk students by assisting them become familiar with campus expectations and encouraging their strengths. The interaction of counselors offers guidance, but also an increased sense of belonging on a campus which can help the student to become more invested in their program of study and more likely to succeed.
Perkins- Gough, D. "Unprepared for College." Educational Leadership 66.3 (2008): 88-89. Wilson Web. Web. 25 Oct. 2009..
This article citing many statistics in the report “Diploma to Nowhere” emphasizes the experience of high school education and the student’s perception that they had not been adequately prepared for college curriculum. The article suggests collaboration between secondary and postsecondary instiutions to better design programs of study that would benefit the students and lessen the need for remediation.
Richardson, Jeanita W. ""Who Shall be Educated?": The case for Restricting Remediation at the City University of New York." Education and Urban Society 37.2 (2005): 174-92. Http://eus.sagepub.com. Web. 25 Oct. 2009.
This article chronicles the history of CUNY, providing background and reasoning for the decision by the Board of Regents to become the first university system in the nation to eliminate remedial course work. The article offers counter arguments to the reasons offered for the policy shift specific to CUNY. Richardson also discusses the impact on the Urban and minority students who typically make up the CUNY student population.
The rhetorical arguments to preserve the integrity of the university as an elite enclave of higher learning are many and faceted. Defenders of this policy shift employ a mixture of rhetorical appeals – focusing mainly upon logos or the scientific proof of statistics which illustrate the state of need for remediation and the discouraging long term educational outcomes of students who receive such services in a university setting. The statistics also evidence the assertion that time and resources are diverted from other college ready students in the learning environment – reframing the question of education equity and the societal implications. Another factor which can be quantified is the burdensome tuition costs for remediation at the university level, both for taxpayers, students and their families. As a nation, currently under extreme budgetary constraints, we must determine at what cost we will continue to subsidize the education of people who are statistically unlikely to succeed.
While I agree that the University is not intended to be a haven for substandard students, statistics reveal that students may arrive unprepared to perform college level work for various reasons. Students who experience language barriers, returning adult students and those with disabilities (both learning and physical) often require some level of remediation, but this necessity does not conclusively prove that they are incompetent college students incapable of mastering the curriculum. Many of the issues facing these students may be adequately addressed through appropriate counseling and support services. To deny these students entrance to the University would deprive the institution of the diversity of student population which is often sought. Additionally the increased time, cost and difficulty of pursuing remedial education prior to university admission may serve as a deterrent to reaching long-term educational goals. Unable to improve their job prospects, some of these students will become a financial burden to society.
Students transitioning from high school to college may also require some level of remediation, but the statistics fails to take into account overall individual performance and strength of skill sets. Most students who transition directly from high school to a four year institution have performed well (sometimes completing honors level classes), earned their diploma and met the basic college entrance requirements (including grade point average and SAT scores) – as determined by the college. Relegating the unprepared high school students to remediation at community colleges superficially addresses the issue, but will perpetuate a cycle of exclusion and elitism in four year colleges and universities.
The implications for the decision to completely eliminate remediation from the university setting are broad and profound for the individual, the educational institution and society. Individuals who require additional preparation must choose to accept limited academic choice or refrain from pursuing higher learning. The educational system must scrutinize how K-12 programs are failing and explore what changes need to be made to produce students who are prepared to compete and produce on the college level – a goal that will require the collaborative effort of all levels of the educational system.
Annotated Bibliography
Diploma to Nowhere. Rep. Strong American Schools. Web. 25 Oct. 2009.
This report offers thorough and current statistics on national rates for remediation and the costs involved. It explores the experience of high school students transitioning to college, including polling on their perceived level of preparedness before and after beginning college courses. The objective of this report is to be the impetus for school reform, so it uses information that puts the effectiveness of high school education and college preparation completely ineffective. This report is cited in several of the other articles in this bibliography, so although it is not a journal article I felt it was important to include it.
Hamilton, Kendra. "Rhetoric Vs. Reality." Black Issues in Higher Education 18.21 (2001): 31-34. EBSCOhost. Web. 25 Oct. 2009.
Hamilton’s article attempts to correct misperceptions in the debate about developmental education, putting into perspective the total cost of remediation in higher education. She also explores the stigma associated with remediation and challenges the ideas that minorities require more remediation than whites, or that students who are accepted into Ivy League Institutions do not require remediation. This article offers answers to several of the assertions made in the case for eliminating remediation, and stresses the positive outcome of students who receive developmental education.
Hollis, Leah P. "Academic Advising in the Wonderland of College for Developmental Students." College Student Journal 43.1 (2009): 31-35. EBSCOhost. Web. 25 Oct. 2009.
Hollis articulates the belief that many developmental students are often plagued by poor preparation and difficult socioeconomic situations which make attaining success in a university setting near impossible. She suggests an advisement model designed to help support and encourage these high risk students by assisting them become familiar with campus expectations and encouraging their strengths. The interaction of counselors offers guidance, but also an increased sense of belonging on a campus which can help the student to become more invested in their program of study and more likely to succeed.
Perkins- Gough, D. "Unprepared for College." Educational Leadership 66.3 (2008): 88-89. Wilson Web. Web. 25 Oct. 2009.
This article citing many statistics in the report “Diploma to Nowhere” emphasizes the experience of high school education and the student’s perception that they had not been adequately prepared for college curriculum. The article suggests collaboration between secondary and postsecondary instiutions to better design programs of study that would benefit the students and lessen the need for remediation.
Richardson, Jeanita W. ""Who Shall be Educated?": The case for Restricting Remediation at the City University of New York." Education and Urban Society 37.2 (2005): 174-92. Http://eus.sagepub.com. Web. 25 Oct. 2009.
This article chronicles the history of CUNY, providing background and reasoning for the decision by the Board of Regents to become the first university system in the nation to eliminate remedial course work. The article offers counter arguments to the reasons offered for the policy shift specific to CUNY. Richardson also discusses the impact on the Urban and minority students who typically make up the CUNY student population.
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